The Paradox of the Desert’s Digital Gold Rush

Here is a contradiction that would have seemed absurd a decade ago: the Middle East, a region whose wealth was built on extracting physical resources from the earth, has become one of the fastest-growing markets for an asset that exists only as code on a distributed ledger. In 2026, the MENA region accounts for roughly 8% of global cryptocurrency trading volume, up from less than 2% in 2020. The United Arab Emirates alone hosts more licensed crypto exchanges than most European countries combined.

Yet the picture is anything but uniform. Travel 1,400 kilometers southeast from Dubai’s VARA-regulated exchange floors to Cairo, and you enter a grey zone where millions trade Bitcoin on peer-to-peer platforms while the central bank officially warns against it. Cross the border from Bahrain’s licensed crypto ecosystem into Saudi Arabia, and you find a kingdom where you can hold Bitcoin but cannot legally buy it from a local exchange. The Middle East’s relationship with cryptocurrency is not one story but twelve different stories, each shaped by distinct regulatory philosophies, economic pressures, and strategic calculations.

This guide provides a comprehensive, country-by-country assessment of where Bitcoin and cryptocurrency stand across the Middle East as of April 2026. We examine legal frameworks, regulatory bodies, market size, adoption patterns, and the forces driving each country’s approach. Whether you are an investor, entrepreneur, or simply curious about the region’s digital transformation, this is the most complete picture available.

The Regional Overview: A Market at $350 Billion and Growing

Before diving into individual countries, the macro picture deserves attention. The Middle East and North Africa cryptocurrency market has grown from approximately $100 billion in annual transaction volume in 2022 to an estimated $350 billion in 2025-2026. This growth has been driven by several regional factors that distinguish the MENA market from other emerging crypto markets.

Why the Middle East Embraced Crypto

First, remittance flows. The Gulf states are home to millions of expatriate workers who send money home to South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa. Traditional remittance services charge 3-7% in fees and take 2-5 business days. Cryptocurrency transfers, particularly stablecoins on low-fee networks, can accomplish the same transfer for under 1% in minutes. The World Bank estimates that the GCC remittance corridor processes over $100 billion annually, and even a small shift to crypto represents billions in volume.

Second, currency instability in non-Gulf states. Countries like Egypt, Turkey, Lebanon, and Iran have experienced significant currency depreciation, driving citizens to seek store-of-value alternatives. Bitcoin and dollar-pegged stablecoins serve as parallel financial systems in economies where the local currency is losing purchasing power. In Egypt alone, peer-to-peer Bitcoin trading volumes have increased over 300% since the pound’s major devaluations.

Third, strategic diversification by Gulf governments. The UAE and Bahrain have explicitly positioned crypto regulation as part of their economic diversification strategies, attracting global crypto firms and the high-skill talent that comes with them. This is not accidental; it is industrial policy for the post-oil era.

UAE: The Undisputed Crypto Capital of the Middle East

No country in the Middle East, and arguably few countries globally, has moved as aggressively to position itself as a cryptocurrency hub as the United Arab Emirates. The story of crypto in the UAE is a story of intentional regulatory design, and it begins with understanding the country’s unique multi-regulator structure.

VARA: Dubai’s Dedicated Crypto Regulator

The Virtual Assets Regulatory Authority (VARA) was established by Dubai in March 2022, making it one of the world’s first standalone cryptocurrency regulators. Unlike most countries, which have wedged crypto oversight into existing financial regulators, Dubai created a purpose-built institution with a mandate covering all virtual asset activities.

VARA issues licenses across seven activity categories: exchange services, broker-dealer services, custodial services, lending and borrowing, management and investment services, transfer and settlement services, and advisory services. As of April 2026, VARA has issued full licenses to over 20 entities, including major global platforms like Binance (which relocated its headquarters compliance to Dubai), OKX, Bybit, and Crypto.com, as well as regional players like BitOasis and Rain.

The licensing process is rigorous. Applicants must demonstrate minimum capital requirements (ranging from AED 1 million to AED 15 million depending on activity type), pass technology audits, implement anti-money laundering and know-your-customer procedures that meet Financial Action Task Force (FATF) standards, and maintain insurance coverage for client assets. The process typically takes 6-12 months from application to full license.

What distinguishes VARA from many regulators is its engagement approach. The authority runs regular industry consultations, publishes draft rules for public comment, and maintains a dedicated innovation lab where companies can test new products in a supervised environment. This regulatory culture has been a key factor in attracting crypto companies that might otherwise have chosen Singapore or Switzerland.

ADGM: Abu Dhabi’s Institutional-Grade Framework

Abu Dhabi’s approach complements Dubai’s through the Abu Dhabi Global Market (ADGM), a financial free zone with its own legal system based on English common law. The ADGM’s Financial Services Regulatory Authority (FSRA) introduced a virtual asset framework in 2018, making it one of the earliest regulators globally to provide a comprehensive crypto licensing regime.

ADGM has positioned itself as the institutional-grade option. While VARA attracts retail-facing exchanges and consumer platforms, ADGM draws custody providers, asset managers, and institutional trading desks. Notable ADGM-licensed entities include Copper Technologies (institutional custody), Matrix Exchange, and several investment funds that hold Bitcoin and other digital assets.

In 2025, ADGM introduced a tokenized securities framework that allows companies to issue regulated tokenized equity and debt instruments. This has attracted attention from regional corporations and sovereign wealth fund-backed ventures exploring blockchain-based capital markets.

The Federal Layer: SCA Oversight

At the federal level, the Securities and Commodities Authority (SCA) provides overarching regulation that applies outside the free zones. The SCA’s virtual asset regulation, updated in 2024, establishes minimum standards for crypto activities conducted under its jurisdiction and provides a framework for coordination between VARA, ADGM, and federal authorities on issues like anti-money laundering, cross-border transactions, and investor protection.

UAE Market Data

The UAE’s crypto market has grown substantially. Reuters reported that the UAE accounted for approximately $150 billion in cryptocurrency transaction volume in 2025, making it the largest crypto market in the Middle East by a significant margin. Bitcoin dominance in UAE trading is approximately 38%, with Ethereum at 22% and stablecoins (primarily USDT and USDC) at 30%. The remaining 10% is distributed among altcoins.

Institutional adoption has been a notable trend. Several UAE-based family offices have allocated 2-5% of their portfolios to digital assets. The Dubai Multi Commodities Centre (DMCC) has launched a crypto center hosting over 500 blockchain-related businesses. Real estate transactions in Bitcoin and Ethereum have become common in Dubai’s luxury property market, with several developers accepting direct crypto payments.

Bahrain: The Quiet Pioneer

Bahrain may lack the headline-grabbing scale of the UAE, but it deserves recognition as a genuine pioneer in Middle Eastern crypto regulation. The Central Bank of Bahrain (CBB) introduced its crypto asset module in 2019, making Bahrain one of the first countries in the region to provide a formal licensing framework.

Regulatory Framework

The CBB’s regulatory approach is integrated into its existing financial services framework rather than creating a standalone regulator. Crypto asset service providers are licensed under the CBB’s Volume 6 rulebook, which covers ancillary service providers. The framework covers exchanges, custodians, and portfolio managers dealing in digital assets.

Rain, which became the first crypto exchange licensed by the CBB in 2019, has grown into one of the most prominent platforms in the Gulf region. Other licensed entities include CoinMENA and several smaller players. The total number of licensed crypto entities in Bahrain stands at 5-7 as of April 2026.

Bahrain’s regulatory approach emphasizes consumer protection and market integrity. Licensed exchanges must maintain segregated client accounts, undergo regular audits, and maintain minimum capital requirements. The CBB has also established clear rules around crypto advertising, requiring that all marketing materials include risk warnings and prohibiting guarantees of returns.

Bahrain’s Strategic Position

Bahrain has positioned its crypto framework as part of a broader fintech strategy. The Bahrain Economic Development Board actively markets the country as a fintech hub, and the CBB’s regulatory sandbox has hosted numerous crypto and blockchain startups. The country’s small size is both a limitation (small domestic market) and an advantage (faster regulatory iteration, closer relationships between regulators and industry).

The Iran conflict has created complications for Bahrain’s crypto ambitions. Increased regulatory scrutiny on financial flows in the region has raised compliance costs for licensed exchanges, and some international crypto firms have delayed Bahrain expansion plans due to regional uncertainty. However, the fundamental regulatory framework remains intact and continues to attract interest from companies seeking a Gulf base outside the UAE.

Saudi Arabia: The Sleeping Giant Stirs

Saudi Arabia represents the most consequential “watch this space” story in Middle Eastern crypto. The Kingdom’s 35 million population, high smartphone penetration (97%), young demographics (over 60% under 35), and significant disposable income make it potentially the largest crypto market in the region. Yet as of April 2026, Saudi Arabia has no local licensed crypto exchange and no comprehensive regulatory framework for digital assets.

Current Legal Status

The legal situation is ambiguous rather than prohibitive. The Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) and the Capital Market Authority (CMA) have issued joint warnings about the risks of cryptocurrency trading, but neither has issued a formal ban. Saudi Arabia’s Basic Law does not explicitly address digital assets, and no court cases have established precedent around crypto legality.

In practice, this means that Saudi residents can buy, hold, and trade cryptocurrency through international platforms without legal consequence, but they lack the protections that come with regulated domestic platforms. Popular platforms among Saudi users include Binance (accessible from Saudi Arabia via its UAE-regulated entity), Coinbase, and Rain (Bahrain-licensed, serving Saudi clients remotely).

The Regulatory Horizon

The CMA announced in late 2025 that it is developing a comprehensive digital asset regulatory framework, expected to be released for public consultation in the second half of 2026. Bloomberg reported that the framework is expected to include licensing requirements for exchanges, custody providers, and token issuers, as well as rules around tokenized securities that align with Saudi Arabia’s stock market development plans.

Saudi Arabia’s approach to crypto regulation is influenced by several factors. Vision 2030’s emphasis on economic diversification creates incentive to attract fintech investment. The Kingdom’s participation in the mBridge project (a CBDC initiative with China, the UAE, Thailand, and Hong Kong) demonstrates engagement with digital currency concepts at the central bank level. However, concerns about capital flight, money laundering, and maintaining monetary policy control have slowed the regulatory process.

The Bitcoin-Riyal Question

A key question in Saudi crypto circles is whether the eventual regulatory framework will permit Bitcoin-Riyal trading pairs on domestic exchanges. This would be significant because it would provide Saudi residents with direct fiat-to-crypto on-ramps, reducing the friction and costs of acquiring digital assets. The current workaround, which involves transferring funds to UAE or Bahrain-based platforms, adds 1-3% in banking and exchange fees.

Egypt: Millions of Users, Zero Regulation

Egypt presents perhaps the most fascinating crypto story in the Middle East: a country where the central bank warns against cryptocurrency, religious authorities have issued a fatwa calling it haram, no local exchange is licensed, and yet millions of citizens actively trade Bitcoin and other digital assets through peer-to-peer platforms and international exchanges.

The Legal Grey Zone

The Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) issued a statement in 2018 warning that creating, trading, or promoting cryptocurrencies is prohibited, and that violators could face legal action. The Egyptian parliament’s banking committee discussed crypto regulation in 2021 and 2023 but did not pass legislation. Dar al-Ifta, Egypt’s primary Islamic jurisprudence authority, issued a fatwa in 2018 declaring cryptocurrency trading haram (forbidden under Islamic law).

However, and this is the critical nuance, none of these constitute binding legislation that criminalizes crypto ownership or trading. The CBE warning is regulatory guidance, not law. The fatwa is advisory, not legally binding in Egypt’s civil legal system. No Egyptian court has convicted anyone solely for trading cryptocurrency. This gap between official discouragement and legal enforcement has created a grey zone in which millions of Egyptians operate.

Why Egyptians Flock to Crypto

Understanding Egyptian crypto adoption requires understanding the Egyptian pound. Since 2022, the pound has experienced multiple major devaluations, falling from approximately 15.7 EGP per dollar to approximately 56 EGP per dollar by April 2026. Each devaluation has driven a spike in crypto adoption as Egyptians seek to preserve purchasing power. Bitcoin, despite its volatility, has outperformed the Egyptian pound by a wide margin over any multi-year period.

Peer-to-peer platforms are the primary on-ramp. Paxful and LocalBitcoins (now succeeded by newer P2P platforms) have seen Egyptian trading volumes increase over 300% since 2022. These platforms allow Egyptians to buy Bitcoin using local bank transfers, Vodafone Cash (mobile money), or even cash transactions, bypassing the need for a formal exchange that would require CBE licensing.

The stablecoin use case is equally important. Many Egyptian freelancers who earn income from international clients receive payment in USDT or USDC, which they then convert to Egyptian pounds through P2P markets at rates typically better than formal banking channels. This is not speculative trading; it is practical financial infrastructure filling gaps that the formal banking system cannot or does not address.

The Path Forward

Egypt’s crypto regulatory trajectory will likely be shaped by two competing pressures. On one hand, the government recognizes that unregulated crypto flows represent a tax revenue gap and a potential money laundering risk. On the other hand, a formal ban would be unenforceable and would push activity further underground. The most likely outcome, based on signals from the CBE and the Financial Regulatory Authority, is a licensing framework that brings exchanges and service providers into the regulated space while imposing transaction reporting requirements, similar to what Bahrain has done but adapted for Egypt’s larger and more complex market.

Qatar: Conservative but Curious

Qatar has taken a cautious approach to cryptocurrency that reflects its broader financial regulatory philosophy: conservative on consumer-facing products, more open within its international financial center.

The Qatar Financial Centre Regulatory Authority (QFCRA) has permitted limited crypto activities within the Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) free zone, including custody services and tokenized asset management for institutional clients. However, retail cryptocurrency trading by Qatari residents remains effectively restricted, with no licensed exchanges available to the general public.

Qatar’s central bank, the Qatar Central Bank (QCB), has maintained a warning against retail crypto trading and has not indicated plans for a licensing framework. The country’s sovereign wealth (the Qatar Investment Authority is one of the world’s largest) has reportedly made indirect crypto exposure through venture capital investments in blockchain startups, but direct Bitcoin holdings have not been confirmed.

Kuwait: The Holdout

Kuwait remains one of the most restrictive environments for cryptocurrency in the Gulf. The Central Bank of Kuwait and the Capital Markets Authority have both issued guidance discouraging crypto trading, and no licensing framework exists. Kuwaiti banks are discouraged from processing transactions with known crypto platforms, creating practical barriers to participation.

Despite these restrictions, Kuwait’s young, affluent population has significant crypto exposure through international platforms and VPN usage. Market research suggests that 5-8% of Kuwaiti adults have held cryptocurrency at some point, comparable to rates in more regulated markets.

Oman: The Mining Surprise

Oman has emerged as an unexpected player in the crypto space, primarily through Bitcoin mining. The government’s investment arm, Oman Investment Authority (OIA), has backed several large-scale Bitcoin mining operations that leverage the country’s abundant natural gas and solar energy resources.

The Oman Capital Market Authority has begun developing a broader regulatory framework for digital assets, with 1-2 exchanges receiving preliminary licenses in 2025. The framework is still maturing, but Oman’s government-level engagement with Bitcoin mining signals a more open approach than its conservative initial stance suggested.

Oman’s mining operations are significant in scale. Facilities in the Special Economic Zone at Duqm and in northern Oman reportedly operate combined hash rates representing approximately 0.5-1% of the global Bitcoin network. The government views mining as both an energy monetization strategy and a technology sector development tool.

Lebanon: Crypto as a Lifeline

Lebanon’s crypto story is one of necessity rather than strategy. The country’s banking crisis, which began in 2019 and has seen depositors locked out of their savings, has driven widespread adoption of cryptocurrency as a parallel financial system. Bitcoin and stablecoins serve functions that the collapsed banking sector cannot: value storage, international transfers, and daily transactions.

The Banque du Liban (BDL), Lebanon’s central bank, has issued warnings against crypto but has no capacity to enforce restrictions given the broader financial system collapse. In practice, crypto operates in an unregulated but tolerated space. P2P Bitcoin trading volumes in Lebanon are among the highest per capita in the region.

The conflict dynamics of 2026 have added another dimension to Lebanon’s crypto landscape. With Hezbollah-Israel tensions elevated and the banking system still non-functional, crypto has become even more essential for everyday financial operations. International humanitarian organizations have experimented with stablecoin-based aid distribution in Lebanon, bypassing the non-functional banking system.

Iran: Mining Licensed, Trading Complex

Iran’s relationship with cryptocurrency is perhaps the most complex in the region. The government has oscillated between encouraging and restricting crypto activities based on a combination of sanctions evasion considerations, electricity grid management, and broader economic policy.

Bitcoin mining has been periodically licensed by the Ministry of Industry, Mine, and Trade, with licensed miners required to pay industrial electricity rates and export their mined Bitcoin. During periods of electricity shortage (typically summer months), the government has ordered temporary shutdowns of mining operations. The ongoing conflict has further complicated mining operations, with electricity grid disruptions affecting even licensed facilities.

Cryptocurrency trading is conducted through domestic platforms that operate in a regulatory grey area. The Central Bank of Iran does not recognize cryptocurrency as legal tender, and banks are prohibited from dealing in it. However, domestic exchanges like Nobitex and Ramzinex operate with implicit tolerance, serving millions of Iranian users who use crypto as a hedge against rial depreciation and sanctions-driven financial isolation.

Turkey: The Regulated Giant

While not an Arab country, Turkey’s influence on the Middle Eastern crypto market is too significant to omit. With a population of 85 million and chronic currency instability (the lira has lost over 80% of its value against the dollar since 2018), Turkey has one of the highest crypto adoption rates globally.

Turkey’s 2024 cryptocurrency law brought the market under formal regulation by the Capital Markets Board (SPK/CMB). The Wall Street Journal reported that over 10 million Turkish citizens now hold cryptocurrency, representing roughly 15% of the adult population. Licensed exchanges include BtcTurk, Paribu, and several international platforms that have obtained Turkish licenses.

Turkey’s regulatory approach includes mandatory transaction reporting, minimum capital requirements for exchanges, and insurance requirements for customer funds. The framework was influenced by the 2022 collapse of Thodex, a Turkish exchange whose founder fled the country with an estimated $2 billion in customer funds, an event that galvanized regulatory action.

The Bitcoin-Gold Parallel in the Middle East

An interesting pattern in Middle Eastern crypto adoption is its correlation with gold culture. The region has the world’s highest per-capita gold ownership, driven by centuries of tradition and a preference for tangible stores of value. Bitcoin’s “digital gold” narrative resonates particularly well in this context.

Gold currently trades at approximately $30 per gram ($933 per troy ounce), with local premiums in Egypt reaching 4,200+ EGP per gram. Bitcoin, at its current levels, is increasingly viewed by younger Gulf investors as a complementary allocation alongside physical gold. Several UAE-based platforms now offer paired Bitcoin-gold investment products that allow users to allocate between the two assets in a single portfolio.

The cultural resonance goes deeper than investment logic. In societies where gold has historically served as both wealth preservation and a form of economic independence (particularly for women, who traditionally hold gold as personal property), Bitcoin’s similar properties of portability, divisibility, and independence from institutional banking systems carry cultural weight that transcends pure financial analysis.

Stablecoins: The Quiet Revolution

While Bitcoin captures headlines, stablecoins may represent the more consequential crypto development in the Middle East. USDT (Tether) and USDC (Circle) are used extensively across the region for practical financial functions that Bitcoin’s volatility makes impractical.

Remittance Replacement

The Gulf-to-South Asia remittance corridor, the world’s largest, processes over $100 billion annually. Traditional services charge 3-7% fees. Stablecoin transfers on networks like Tron (where USDT transfer fees are under $1) have captured an estimated 5-10% of this volume, representing a shift of $5-10 billion in annual remittance flows to blockchain rails. This trend is accelerating as receiving-country infrastructure (the ability to convert USDT to local currency) improves in India, Pakistan, Philippines, and Bangladesh.

Business Payments

UAE-based trading companies have adopted stablecoins for cross-border business payments, particularly with Chinese suppliers who accept USDT directly. This bypasses the SWIFT system, reducing both costs and settlement times from 3-5 days to minutes. The Dubai Chamber of Commerce has acknowledged this trend while cautioning businesses to maintain proper documentation for tax and regulatory compliance.

CBDC Developments

Several Middle Eastern central banks are developing or piloting Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) that could eventually compete with or complement stablecoins. The UAE’s mBridge project (with China, Thailand, Hong Kong, and now Saudi Arabia) is the most advanced, having completed successful pilot transactions for cross-border wholesale payments. Saudi Arabia joined mBridge as a full participant in 2024, signaling serious interest in digital currency infrastructure even while retail crypto regulation remains pending.

Regulatory Trends to Watch in 2026-2027

Several regulatory developments will shape the Middle Eastern crypto landscape over the next 12-18 months.

Saudi Arabia’s Framework

The CMA’s upcoming digital asset framework will be the most consequential regulatory event in regional crypto for 2026. If Saudi Arabia follows the UAE model and creates a licensing regime that permits domestic exchanges and fiat on-ramps, it could unlock a market estimated at $50-80 billion in annual trading volume, roughly matching or exceeding the UAE’s current market.

GCC Harmonization Efforts

The Gulf Cooperation Council’s financial services committee has been discussing harmonized standards for crypto regulation that would facilitate cross-border operations among member states. A unified GCC crypto passport, allowing firms licensed in one member state to operate across the bloc, has been proposed but remains in early discussion stages.

Islamic Finance Integration

The intersection of cryptocurrency and Islamic finance is a growing area of development. Several UAE-based platforms have launched Shariah-compliant crypto investment products that avoid interest-bearing mechanisms and speculative instruments. AAOIFI (the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions) has been working on updated guidance for digital assets that could provide a framework for Islamic crypto finance across the region.

Travel Rule Implementation

FATF’s Travel Rule, which requires virtual asset service providers to share customer information for transactions above certain thresholds, is being progressively implemented across the region. VARA and the CBB are fully compliant, while other jurisdictions are at various stages of implementation. This technical requirement has significant implications for exchange operations and cross-border transaction processing.

Investment Considerations for 2026

For investors navigating the Middle Eastern crypto landscape in 2026, several factors deserve consideration.

Regulatory risk varies dramatically by jurisdiction. Operating through UAE or Bahrain-licensed platforms provides the strongest protections. Using international platforms from countries without regulatory frameworks (Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Kuwait) carries counterparty and regulatory risks that should be understood.

The Iran conflict has injected additional volatility into regional crypto markets. Increased sanctions screening and compliance requirements have raised costs for exchanges operating in the Gulf. At the same time, conflict-driven economic uncertainty has increased crypto adoption in affected countries, creating both risks and opportunities.

Tax treatment is an advantage. Most Gulf states impose no personal income tax or capital gains tax on cryptocurrency gains. This makes the UAE in particular an attractive jurisdiction for crypto investors, though this could change as GCC countries explore broader taxation frameworks.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Is Bitcoin legal in the UAE in 2026?

Yes. Bitcoin is legal and regulated in the UAE. Dubai’s VARA and Abu Dhabi’s ADGM both provide licensing frameworks for crypto exchanges, brokers, and custodians. Over 20 entities have received full licenses. The UAE is the most crypto-friendly jurisdiction in the Middle East.

Can you buy Bitcoin in Saudi Arabia?

There is no explicit ban on buying Bitcoin in Saudi Arabia, but no local exchanges are licensed. Saudi residents access crypto through international platforms like Binance (UAE entity) and Rain (Bahrain-licensed). The Capital Market Authority is developing a regulatory framework expected in late 2026.

Is cryptocurrency banned in Egypt?

Not formally banned by law, though the Central Bank has warned against it and religious authorities issued a fatwa. No specific legislation criminalizes holding or trading crypto. Millions of Egyptians use P2P platforms. A regulatory framework is being studied but no timeline has been announced.

Which Middle Eastern country is best for crypto businesses?

The UAE is the leading jurisdiction, with Dubai’s VARA and Abu Dhabi’s ADGM offering comprehensive licensing. Bahrain is a strong second option with CBB licensing. Both offer regulatory clarity, free zone benefits, and regional market access.

How much crypto trading comes from the Middle East?

The MENA region accounts for approximately 7-9% of global crypto volume, with 40%+ year-over-year growth. The UAE contributes roughly half of regional volume. Total annual transaction volume in the region is estimated at $300-400 billion.

What is VARA?

VARA (Virtual Assets Regulatory Authority) is Dubai’s dedicated crypto regulator, established in 2022. It licenses activities across seven categories including exchanges, custody, and advisory services. VARA has issued 20+ full licenses and is considered one of the most comprehensive crypto regulatory frameworks globally.

Is Bitcoin mining legal in the Middle East?

It varies. UAE permits licensed mining. Oman has government-backed mining operations. Iran periodically licenses and restricts mining based on electricity conditions. Saudi Arabia has no specific mining regulations. Most other countries have grey areas around mining.